Wednesday 18 / June / 2025
Berlin: After a dry European spring, farmers across some parts of the continent are worried about this year’s crops.
And the concerns are not unique to Europe. As global temperatures are pushed up by the burning of coal, oil and gas, other parts of the world are also experiencing longer periods of drought.
But not all droughts are equal, and each type comes with its own set of consequences.
Meteorological and agricultural droughts
A study released this year by the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research (WSL) showed that periods of extreme drought have increased globally over the last 40 years. The global average of drought-stricken land has increased by around 50,000 square kilometres (about 19,300 square miles) every year, an area roughly the size of Slovakia.
People in northern Chile have been living with drought for the last 14 years, while in the southwestern US — states like Arizona, New Mexico and parts of California, for instance — the last three years have been extremely dry.
Meteorological drought is defined by comparing actual conditions to the average amount of precipitation in a certain area, making them region specific. The German Weather Service, for examples, calls a meteorological drought a period of one or two months of unusually dry weather, with little precipitation.
If the ground is parched, farmers are having trouble securing water, plants aren't growing properly and crops are reduced or even fail completely, it is known as an agricultural drought.
Hydrological drought
This occurs when water levels in rivers, lakes and underground natural reserves fall below a specific minimum, and freshwater supplies are almost completely dry.
Hydrological drought often occurs after a longer meteorological drought. For the German Weather Service, that means a period of at least four months of unusually dry conditions.
More and more regions around the world are experiencing above-average dryness. By 2050, the World Bank has predicted that people living in much of Africa, Southeast Asia, parts of the US and South America will see even greater problems.
In Cyprus, rivers and reservoirs are empty
The Mediterranean island of Cyprus is currently experiencing both an agricultural and hydrological drought. Rain has been scarce for many weeks — reservoirs are empty, riverbeds are dry and dusty and farmers don't have enough to keep their crops alive. Recent media reports have said this year's harvest is at risk of failure.
"Last year was already bad, but this is the second year that is very dry," said Adriana Bruggeman, an associate professor at the Cyprus Institute's Energy, Environment and Water Research Centre.
Bruggeman explained that the winter months are usually a time of more precipitation, giving lakes and rivers the chance to refill. But when that rain doesn't fall, the reservoirs in Cyprus remain empty.
"We're not in a good condition," she said.
Socioeconomic drought
It's not always easy to strictly differentiate between the different types of drought, as several phenomena can occur in parallel.
Most droughts that people actually notice are of the socioeconomic kind, according to Dirk Karger of the WSL in Switzerland. These occur when extremely dry conditions have a direct effect on society and the economy — when the lack of water make certain goods or electricity more expensive, or even scarce.
During a period of extreme drought in Spain and Italy in 2024, there were times when water supplies were rationed. In the same period in neighboring France, several nuclear plants had to be temporarily shut down due to insufficient water to cool the reactors. And in Zimbabwe, a hydroelectric plant was unable to provide electricity due to water shortages, resulting in power outages.
Droughts can also have dramatic social and economic consequences. In many regions, including Sudan, South Suden and Mali, persistent droughts have exacerbated hunger..
"If we look to the West, in the US, where there's been water shortages for the last decade, there have also been repercussions on the water supply," said Karger. "The same thing in Chile, where there's been some real damage."
The western states of California and Nevada have experienced months of drought, contributing to the conditions that saw devastating wildfires during the winter months — most notably in Los Angeles in January 2025.
Ecological drought
The effects of severe drought, according to Germany's Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, are often underestimated — even though they often cause much greater economic damage than storms, floods or heavy rain.
Unlike these extreme weather events, droughts don't come with an early warning sign. And how bad a drought will end up being is only known long after it has begun. In the US alone, droughts are responsible for between $6-9 billion in damages every year.
As a result, researchers are increasingly highlighting a fifth type of event: ecological drought. This describes how periods of extreme drought can destabilize animals, plants and entire ecosystems.
A severe drop in groundwater levels and soil moisture can lead to irreversible effects for ecosystems — and people. These include widespread crop failure, increased tree death, reduced ecosystem productivity and a threat to water supplies, WSL researchers highlighted in their study.
Drought spares no landscape. A severe drought is almost immediately noticeable on grasslands, but these find it easier to bounce back after the rains return. Forests, on the other hand, can't recover as easily and may experience lasting damage from the same weather conditions.
Drought also raises the risks in other disasters. A heavy rain after a long period of dryness, for example, can overwhelm dried out soils. The ground can't absorb the sudden masses of water, leading to flooding, landslides and raging mudflows.
What can we do to save water and survive drought?
To prevent droughts from becoming even more severe in the future, experts say we must do everything to limit climate change as quickly as possible.
At the same time, people will need to adapt to increasingly long periods without rain. Finding ways to use the available water more efficiently, both at home and in industry, is essential. Places like Singapore are leading the way when it comes to water conservation.
The city-state in Southeast Asia is a world leader when it comes to collecting rainwater. Water reservoirs have been set up throughout the city, ready to collect any rain that falls from the sky. These reservoirs deliver drinking water during periods of dry weather, and help to cool the city during heat waves. Water treatment plants reclaim wastewater, turning it back into drinking water.
So far, Singapore is one of the few countries to do so much to conserve water. Its strategy is an excellent example for other cities and regions, and could help them to prepare for water shortages.
Efficiency is another potential way to save water. Around the world, cities lose huge volumes of the precious resource due to leaky or broken pipes. In Italy, some 40% of the country's freshwater is lost on the way to the consumer; in Europe, about a quarter of drinking water is wasted due to inadequate management practices.
Regular repair and maintenance of pipes, including regularly checking them for leaks, would help to protect water supplies worldwide.
